Systems, devices, and methods for high quality ion beam formation

ABSTRACT

Embodiments of systems, devices, and methods relating to a beam system. An example beam system includes a charged particle source configured to generate a beam of charged particles, a pre-accelerator system configured to accelerate the beam, and an accelerator configured to accelerate the beam from the pre-accelerator system. The pre-accelerator system can cause the beam to converge as it is propagated from the source to an input aperture of the accelerator. The pre-accelerator system can further reduce or eliminate source disturbance or damage caused by backflow traveling from the accelerator toward the source.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional ApplicationSer. No. 63/044,310, titled “SYSTEMS, DEVICES, AND METHODS FOR HIGHQUALITY ION BEAM FORMATION,” filed Jun. 25, 2020, and to U.S.Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/895,203, titled “EINZEL LENS FOR LOWENERGY ION BEAM TRANSPORT,” filed Sep. 3, 2019, and to U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 62/894,106, titled “NEUTRON GENERATING TARGET FORNEUTRON BEAM SYSTEMS,” filed Aug. 30, 2019, and to U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 62/894,220, titled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR GASPUFF BEAM IMAGING,” filed Aug. 30, 2019, and to U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 62/894,290, titled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR FASTBEAM POSITION MONITORING,” filed Aug. 30, 2019, all of which areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

FIELD

The subject matter described herein relates generally to systems,devices, and methods of forming high-quality ion beams for tandemaccelerator systems.

BACKGROUND

Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) is a modality of treatment of avariety of types of cancer, including some of the most difficult types.BNCT is a technique that selectively aims to treat tumor cells whilesparing the normal cells using a boron compound. A substance thatcontains boron is injected into a blood vessel, and the boron collectsin tumor cells. The patient then receives radiation therapy withneutrons (e.g., in the form of a neutron beam). The neutrons react withthe boron to kill the tumor cells while reducing harm to surroundingnormal cells. Prolonged clinical research has proven that a beam ofneutrons with an energy spectrum within 3-30 kiloelectronvolts (keV) ispreferable to achieve a more efficient cancer treatment while decreasinga radiation load on a patient. This energy spectrum or range isfrequently referred to as epithermal.

Most conventional methods for the generation of epithermal neutrons(e.g., epithermal neutron beams) are based on nuclear reactions ofprotons with either beryllium or lithium (e.g., a beryllium target or alithium target). In both cases, the energy spectrum of the resultingneutrons is shifted to higher energies and therefore requiresmoderation. Such slowing of the neutrons down to the required energies(e.g., within the epithermal spectrum), together with forming therequisite neutron beam for BNCT, is conventionally achieved using beamshaping assemblies (BSA).

A cyclotron accelerator accelerates charged particles outwards from acenter of the accelerator along a spiral path. The particles are held toa spiral trajectory by a static magnetic field and accelerated by arapidly varying (radio frequency) electric field. The reaction ofprotons with a beryllium target is characterized by a high yield ofneutrons, which enables maintaining of a relatively low proton beamcurrent, for example, within limits achievable on cyclotron acceleratorsof protons. The energy of the proton beam is also within the limits ofcyclotron accelerators. Accordingly, neutron sources based on cyclotronaccelerators and beryllium targets are characterized by high neutronyield. However, the energy spectrum of the resulting neutrons is shiftedtowards higher energies and, as described above, requires substantialmoderation in complicated BSAs. Such complicated BSAs are inefficientfor slowing the neutrons and forming the requisite neutron beam forideal BNCT applications.

High energy accelerators are usually expensive, and protons and neutronswith higher energies cause higher activation of system components, whichmakes systems with beryllium targets less attractive for BNCT treatmentcenters.

Beams of epithermal neutrons formed in cyclotron-based systems withberyllium targets have flux densities comparable with systems withlithium targets. However, systems with lithium targets result in lowerenergies of the proton beam, usually within the range of 1.9-3.0Megaelectronvolts (MeV). Existing proton beam accelerators designed forlithium targets can be divided in two categories: RF-based acceleratorsand Electrostatic accelerators.

RF-based accelerators: Typically, RF-based proton accelerators for thepresent requisite energy range are based on Radio Frequency Quadrupoles,or RFQs. An RFQ is a linear accelerator which focuses and accelerates acontinuous beam of charged particles with high efficiency whilepreserving emittance. The focusing as well as the acceleration areperformed by a radio frequency (RF) electric field. While RFQ technologyis mature, it remains still expensive and unattractively complex formanufacturing and operation. Moreover, it is difficult to build an RFQsystem for an average current of 10 milliamps (mA) or higher.

Electrostatic accelerators: The present requisite energy range is withinreach for electrostatic accelerators. Electrostatic acceleratorsaccelerate charged particles by subjecting them to a static high voltagepotential. For example, a high voltage terminal is kept as a staticpotential on the order of millions of volts (e.g., also referred to asan accelerating voltage). Electrostatic accelerators are usuallysubstantially less expensive, more compact, and more energy efficientthan other conventional solutions. Electrostatic accelerators alsoadvantageously provide the ability to adjust the spectrum of theresulting neutrons by variation of the proton beam energy.

Generation of requisite accelerating voltages higher than 2 Megavolts(MV) in electrostatic accelerator systems with direct acceleration ishighly challenging, which limits the achievable energy of the idealproton beam. Placement of a proton source at a high voltage end of theelectrostatic accelerator limits the ability to form the injected protonbeam with low emittance, which limits the quality of the acceleratedbeam. Control and maintenance of the proton injector/source at the highvoltage end of the electrostatic accelerator is also very technicallychallenging.

A tandem accelerator is a type of electrostatic accelerator that canemploy a two-step acceleration of ion particles using a single highvoltage terminal. The high voltage is used to form, for example, anincreasingly positive gradient that is applied to the incoming negativebeam to accelerate it, at which point the tandem accelerator convertsthe negative beam to a positive beam, and then the high voltage is usedagain to form a reversed decreasingly positive gradient that accelerates(e.g., pushes) the positive beam from the tandem accelerator. Becausethe high voltage can be used twice, generation of proton beams with aparticle energy of 3 MeV typically requires an accelerating voltage ofonly 1.5 MV, which is within the reach of modern technologies ofelectrical insulation. Moreover, an ion source of a tandem acceleratoris placed at the ground potential, which maintaining and control of theion source easier.

In ion beam systems utilizing plasma-based ion sources, ions areextracted from a boundary surface (called a meniscus) of the plasma. Theshape and parameters of the boundary surface are characterized by thestrong dependence on the extracted current density, local rates ofionization, recombination and diffusion, and applied electric fielddistribution. A newborn ion beam is typically highly divergent, aberrant(an effect of the magnetic dipole separating electrons and ions of thesame polarity) and subjected to space charge effects due to low initialenergy. As a result, various existing solutions face several drawbacks.

Single aperture sources of negative hydrogen ions with sufficiently highcurrent usually face a number of challenges, such as high initial beamdivergence due to conditions of high current beam generation; limitedbeam acceleration in the ion source apertures due to the high gas loadrequired for high current beam generation; and beam divergence due tothe space charge of the beam, which is more pronounced at lower energiesof the beam particles.

For these and other reasons, a need exists for improved, efficient, andcompact systems, devices, and methods that provide high-quality ionbeams for tandem accelerator systems.

SUMMARY

Example embodiments of systems, devices, and methods are describedherein for forming high-quality ion beams that can be used in variousaccelerator systems. Embodiments of the present disclosure are directedto beam systems, the devices therein, and their methods of use. Anexample beam system includes a particle source (e.g., an ion source)configured to generate particles in a beam form, a pre-acceleratorsystem configured to accelerate the particles from the source, and anaccelerator configured to accelerate the particle from thepre-accelerator system. The pre-accelerator system can cause the beam toconverge as it is propagated from the source to an input aperture of theaccelerator. The pre-accelerator system can further reduce or eliminatesource disturbance or damage caused by backflow traveling from theaccelerator toward the source.

Other systems, devices, methods, features and advantages of the subjectmatter described herein will be or will become apparent to one withskill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detaileddescription. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods,features and advantages be included within this description, be withinthe scope of the subject matter described herein and be protected by theaccompanying claims. In no way should the features of the exampleembodiments be construed as limiting the appended claims, absent expressrecitation of those features in the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

The details of the subject matter set forth herein, both as to itsstructure and operation, may be apparent by study of the accompanyingfigures, in which like reference numerals refer to like parts. Thecomponents in the figures are not necessarily to scale, emphasis insteadbeing placed upon illustrating the principles of the subject matter.Moreover, all illustrations are intended to convey concepts, whererelative sizes, shapes and other detailed attributes may be illustratedschematically rather than literally or precisely.

FIG. 1A is a schematic diagram of an example embodiment of a neutronbeam system for use with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 1B is a schematic diagram of an example embodiment of a neutronbeam system for use in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT).

FIG. 2 illustrates an example pre-accelerator system or ion beaminjector for use with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3A is a perspective view of the ion source and the ion sourcevacuum box shown in FIG. 2 .

FIG. 3B is an exploded perspective view depicting an example embodimentof the einzel lens shown in FIG. 3A.

FIG. 4 illustrates an example pre-accelerator tube for use withembodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 5 illustrates a cross-section of an example ionization curve.

FIG. 6 illustrates operation of an example pre-accelerator system or ionbeam injector, for use with embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7 illustrates an example beam injector system employing a verticalion source and bending magnets.

FIG. 8 further illustrates operation of an example pre-acceleratorsystem or ion beam injector, for use with embodiments of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 9 illustrates an example ion source backplate for use withembodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10 illustrates a block diagram of a system within which embodimentsof the present disclosure may operate.

FIG. 11 illustrates an example computing apparatus that may be speciallyconfigured in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before the present subject matter is described in detail, it is to beunderstood that this disclosure is not limited to the particularembodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to beunderstood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose ofdescribing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to belimiting, since the scope of the present disclosure will be limited onlyby the appended claims.

The term “particle” is used broadly herein and, unless otherwiselimited, can be used to describe an electron, a proton (or H+ ion), or aneutral, as well as a species having more than one electron, proton,and/or neutron (e.g., other ions, atoms, and molecules).

The aforementioned and other limitations resulting in high beamdivergence and low beam energy make it difficult to design an ioninjector suitable for operation with particle accelerators. Taking atandem accelerator as an example, low energies of the negative ions(e.g., H− ions) injected into the tandem accelerator can createunfavorable conditions in the first accelerating gap of the tandemaccelerator. Indeed, output energies of negative ion sources are usuallylimited by 20-40 keV. When such negative ions are injected into thefirst acceleration gap of the tandem accelerator, which usually has anaccelerating voltage of about 200 kilovolts (kV), the negative ionstypically reach an energy of about 100 keV in the middle of the firstacceleration gap.

The energy of 100 keV corresponds to the approximate maximum of theionization cross section for negative hydrogen ions (e.g., as shown inFIG. 5 ). The ionization cross section represents a measure of how largea particular particle appears to other particles while moving throughspace. Accelerators can often have trace amounts of background gaspresent in the near vacuum environment. For tandem accelerators,background gas (e.g., argon neutrals) can be purposefully introduced bya gaseous charge exchange device that is used to modify the charge ofthe incoming beam in the center of the tandem accelerator. The beamparticles, such as H− ions, can ionize this background gas, and thisionization can be substantial or intense. In such tandem acceleratorswith gaseous charge exchange targets, the resulting relative highpressure of the background gas, and a larger ionization cross section,can mean that an H− ion is more likely to collide with background gas inthe first accelerating gap of the tandem accelerator.

Moreover, intense ionization in the first acceleration gap of a tandemaccelerator induces beam-sustained plasma discharges in the firstacceleration gap, which lead to several drawbacks, including: (i) highvoltage breakdown of the tandem accelerator, which makes the acceleratorinoperable for an undesirable duration of time (e.g., hundreds ofseconds); (ii) overload of the high voltage power supply, which leads todecreased voltage on the first acceleration gap and, as a result,defocusing of the beam and a decrease in the beam energy; (iii)overheating of the electrodes of the tandem accelerator; (iv) formationof intense backflow of accelerated positive ions, which overheat anddisturb operation of the particle source; and (v) generation ofbremsstrahlung radiation, which irradiates surfaces of the high voltageinsulators of the tandem accelerator and decrease their high voltagestrength. Bremsstrahlung radiation is radiation given off by a chargedparticle due to its acceleration caused by an electric field of anothercharged particle.

High current of the negative ion beam may also require substantialefforts to focus the negative ion beam on the input aperture of thetandem accelerator. Usually, injectors of the negative ion beams withcurrents higher than 5 milliamps (mA) are complex and have a number offocusing magnetic elements and a gas- or plasma-filled beamline tocompensate for the space charge of the ion beam. In such an example asdepicted in FIG. 7 , an injector of negative ion beams includes avertical ion source and utilizes a bending magnet to focus a resultingion beam toward an input aperture. Such systems suffer from drawbacksincluding low beam quality and an elliptical beam. An elliptical beam isundesirable for a tandem accelerator, thus such implementations requiresignificantly complex beam handling to achieve a beam quality (e.g.,substantially non-elliptical or substantially circular cross section)for the tandem accelerator. Moreover, any accelerator having gas filledbeamlines, even in a near vacuum environment, can suffer fromsubstantial losses of beam current due to charge exchange.

Example embodiments of systems, devices, and methods are describedherein for a pre-accelerator system for use with a particle accelerator.Particle accelerators are a common example, and the embodimentsdescribed herein can be used with any type of particle accelerator or inany particle accelerator application involving production of a chargedparticle beam at specified energies for supply to the particleaccelerator. Embodiments of the present pre-accelerator system or ionbeam injector are suited to provide a negative particle beam to a tandemaccelerator, but this is just an example type of accelerator. Thepre-accelerator embodiments described herein can be implemented in:particle accelerators used as scientific tools, such as for nuclearphysics research; particle accelerators used in industrial ormanufacturing processes, such as the manufacturing of semiconductorchips; accelerators for the alteration of material properties (such assurface treatment); particle accelerators for the irradiation of food;and particle accelerators for pathogen destruction in medicalsterilization. The embodiments can also be used in imaging applications,such as cargo or container inspection. And by way of anothernon-exhaustive example, the embodiments can be used in particleaccelerators for medical applications, such as medical diagnosticsystems, medical imaging systems, or radiation therapy systems.

One such radiation therapy system is a BNCT system. For ease ofdescription, many embodiments described herein will be done so in thecontext of a neutron beam system for use in BNCT, although theembodiments are not limited to just neutron beams nor BNCT applications.Embodiments of the present disclosure enable configuration of anaccelerator system (also referred to herein as a pre-accelerator system)for generating a proton beam with parameters suitable for sources ofneutrons for BNCT with neutron generating targets, such as lithium (Li)or beryllium (Be).

For efficient generation of epithermal neutrons on a lithium target, abeam of protons with energies of 1.9-3.0 MeV is desirable. The formationof a neutron beam with a preferable flux density for reasonably shorttreatment time, in such applications, may also involve a proton beamcurrent above 5 mA. In order to employ tandem accelerator systems insuch applications, a source of negative ions of hydrogen may bepreferred. Sources of negative hydrogen ions with sufficiently highcurrent can have high emittance, which can make building a negative ionbeam injector for a tandem accelerator while maintaining suitable beamquality difficult. The proposed configuration overcomes this and otherdifficulties and provides a compact, efficient negative ion beam source(e.g., of negative hydrogen ions) with high beam quality.

Embodiments of the present disclosure can increase the energy of chargedparticles right after their injection from a charged particle source,such as an ion source, which leads to a decrease in effects of the spacecharge. Divergence of the ion beam particles due to their space chargedecreases with the increase of the particle energies, which eliminatesor reduces the necessity of the gas- or plasma-filled beamlines.

Embodiments of the present disclosure can enable a short focal distance,which makes the present pre-accelerator or ion beam injector systemsrelatively more compact than conventional systems. Embodiments of thepresent disclosure can further diminish backflow, to the extent that theneed to move the ion injector off of the beam axis of the accelerator(and thus to the extent a beam bending magnet is included upstream ofthe accelerator to substantially reorient the injected ion beam on theproper axis) is eliminated (e.g., see discussion with respect to FIG. 5). Note that use of the terms “upstream” and “downstream” refer to thedirection of travel of the beam, not the direction of the backflow.

Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to using a pre-acceleratortube with dimensions selected such that a focal length of 500-1500millimeters (mm) is achieved at the accelerating voltages of 60-180 kV.Therefore, fine tuning a beam focal spot to the location of the inputaperture of the tandem accelerator may be achieved by positioning asingle additional magnetic element (e.g., a solenoid) downstream fromthe pre-accelerator tube.

Embodiments of the present disclosure enable a decreased size of anegative ion beam at the input aperture of the tandem accelerator.Indeed, the smaller the input size of the beam, the smaller its size atthe center of the tandem accelerator. A smaller radius of the beam atthe center of the tandem accelerator enables a decrease in an innerdiameter of the charge exchange device, which leads to a decrease in thegas flow needed to create sufficiently high gas pressure in the chargeexchange device for efficient charge transformation of the beamparticles. Usually, efficiency of 90-95% is considered acceptable forgas charge exchange devices. Lower gas flow decreases the backgroundpressure in the tandem accelerator and, as a result, increases itsreliability.

Compared to conventional approaches, embodiments of the presentdisclosure can provide the following additional benefits, among others:higher reliability of the tandem accelerator due to less probable highvoltage breakdowns; higher high voltage strength of the insulators inthe tandem accelerator; lower load on the first accelerating gap,resulting in more uniform and stable acceleration rate in the tandemaccelerator; lower or depressed backflow from the tandem accelerator tothe negative ion source; decreased generation of bremsstrahlungradiation in the first accelerating gap; and lower heat load onelectrodes of the tandem accelerator.

Features of the embodiments of the present pre-accelerator system solvea number of issues related to physics of, e.g., the negative ion sourceand the tandem accelerator.

Embodiments of the present disclosure may be useful for any type ofelectrostatic accelerators of negative ions with the beam current abovea few milliamps. The embodiments disclosed herein may have anyadditional elements including ion optics and beam diagnostics before,within, or after the pre-accelerator system, as required by a particularapplication.

Embodiments of the present disclosure can be used for a neutron beamsystem (NBS) that provides a continuous or modulated proton beam. Theproton beam can have a wide range of energies and currents. For example,in some embodiments the proton beam has a particle energy in the rangeof 1.9-3.0 MeV with a beam current of 5-15 mA. In other embodiments, theproton beam has energies and/or currents outside these ranges. The beamcan be directed to a lithium target to generate a neutron beam, or theNB S can be used with targets having other materials for neutrongeneration, such as beryllium instead of lithium.

In some embodiments, the ion source generates a beam of negative ions ofhydrogen with a current up to 15 mA. The beam particles can beaccelerated in the ion source to an energy of 30 keV (or higher). Theion source can be connected to the pre-accelerator system (with one ormore intervening components), which provides additional acceleration ofnegative ion beam particles to the energy of 120-150 keV (or higher).The beam can be also focused in the pre-accelerator system with a focallength correspondent to the distance to the input aperture of the tandemaccelerator input chamber, e.g., a distance of less than one meter (m).The pre-accelerator system can include an electrostatic lens (e.g., aneinzel lens), a pre-accelerator device (e.g., a pre-accelerator tubehaving multiple terminals), and/or a magnetic element (e.g., one or moresolenoids) for accelerating the ion beam to higher energies prior toentering the tandem accelerator.

The electrostatic lens of the pre-accelerator system can be positionedbetween the ion source and the pre-accelerator tube such that theelectrostatic lens is downstream from a ground lens of the ion source.The electrostatic lens can reduce divergence of the ion beam from theion source, and can also divert and collect ionized backflow particles.

The magnetic element (or magnetic focusing device) of thepre-accelerator system can be positioned between the pre-acceleratortube and the tandem accelerator, and can fine tune the beam toward thefocal spot. The magnetic element can be, for example, a solenoid.

The ion beam injection scheme disclosed herein can enable operation withsignificant reductions in charged particle backflow, or withoutsignificant charged particle (e.g., secondary ion) backflow. Thisenables placement of the charged particle source such that the sourcedparticles are emitted along the same or substantially the same axis thattraverses the accelerator, along which particles passing through theaccelerator are accelerated. Because the charged particle source canemit onto the same axis used by the accelerator, no significant beamdeflection is required (beyond relatively minor adjustments for finetuning alignment), and therefore beam distortions inherent to suchsignificant deflections can be avoided. As such, the present injectionscheme enables operation of the neutron beam system without a beamdeflecting magnet between the charged particle source and the tandemaccelerator that changes the angle of the beam from one major axis toanother (e.g., 20 degrees or more).

FIG. 1A is a schematic diagram of an example embodiment of a beam systemfor use with embodiments of the present disclosure. Here, beam system 10includes a source 22, a low-energy beamline (LEBL) 190, an accelerator40 coupled to the low-energy beamline (LEBL) 190, and a high-energybeamline (HEBL) 50 extending from accelerator 40 to a target assemblyhousing a target 196. LEBL 190 is configured to transport a beam fromsource 22 to accelerator 40, which is configured to accelerate the beamHEBL 50 transfers the beam from an output of accelerator 40 to a target196.

FIG. 1B is a schematic diagram illustrating an example neutron beamsystem 10 for use in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT), according toembodiments of the present disclosure. The neutron beam system 10includes a pre-accelerator system 20 forming at least a portion of theLEBL, where the pre-accelerator system 20 serves as a charged particlebeam injector as shown in FIG. 2 , a high voltage (HV) tandemaccelerator 40 coupled to the pre-accelerator system 20, and ahigh-energy beamline 50 extending from the tandem accelerator 40 to aneutron target assembly 200 housing the neutron-producing target. Inthis embodiment beam source 22 is an ion source and the charged particlebeam is a negative ion beam prior to conversion to a proton beam withintandem accelerator 40. It will be appreciated that neutron beam system10 as well as pre-accelerator system 20 can also be used for otherapplications, such as cargo inspection and others, and is not limited toBNCT.

The pre-accelerator system 20 (also referred to herein as the chargedparticle beam injector or ion beam injector) is configured to transportthe ion beam from the ion source 22 to the input (e.g., an inputaperture) of the tandem accelerator 40, and thus also acts as LEBL 190.

Tandem accelerator 40, which is powered by a high voltage power supply42 coupled thereto, can produce a proton beam with an energy generallyequal to twice the voltage applied to the accelerating electrodespositioned within the tandem accelerator 40. The energy level of theproton beam can be achieved by accelerating the beam of negativehydrogen ions from the input of the tandem accelerator 40 to theinnermost high-potential electrode, stripping two electrons from eachion, and then accelerating the resulting protons downstream by the sameapplied voltage.

The high-energy beamline 50 can transfer the proton beam from the outputof the tandem accelerator 40 to the neutron-generating target in theneutron target assembly 200 positioned at the end of a branch 70 of thebeamline extending into a patient treatment room. System 10 can beconfigured to direct the proton beam to any number of one or moretargets and associated treatment areas. In this embodiment, thehigh-energy beamline 50 includes three branches 70, 80 and 90 to extendinto three different patient treatment rooms. In this embodiment, thehigh-energy beamline 50 includes a pump chamber 51, quadrupole magnets52 and 72 to prevent de-focusing of the beam, dipole or bending magnets56 and 58 to steer the beam into treatment rooms, beam correctors 53,diagnostics such as current monitors 54 and 76, a fast beam positionmonitor 55 section, and a scanning magnet 74.

The design of the high-energy beamline 50 depends on the configurationof the treatment facility (e.g., a single-story configuration of atreatment facility, a two-story configuration of a treatment facility,and the like). The beam can be delivered to a target assembly (e.g.,positioned near a treatment room) 200 with the use of the bending magnet56. Quadrupole magnets 72 can be included to then focus the beam to acertain size at the target. Then, the beam passes one or more scanningmagnets 74, which provides lateral movement of the beam onto the targetsurface in a desired pattern (e.g., spiral, curved, stepped in rows andcolumns, combinations thereof, and others). The beam lateral movementcan help achieve smooth and even time-averaged distribution of theproton beam on the lithium target, preventing overheating and making theneutron generation as uniform as possible within the lithium layer.

After entering the scanning magnets 74, the beam can be delivered into acurrent monitor 76, which measures beam current. The target assembly 200can be physically separated from the high energy beamline volume with agate valve 77. The main function of the gate valve is separation of thevacuum volume of the beamline from the target while loading the targetand/or exchanging a used target for a new one. In embodiments, the beammay not be bent by 90 degrees by a bending magnet 56, it rather goesstraight to the right, then it enters the quadrupole magnets 52, whichare located in the horizontal beamline. After, the beam could be bent byanother bending magnet 58 to a needed angle, depending on the roomconfiguration. Otherwise, the bending magnet 58 could be replaced with aY-shaped magnet in order to split the beamline into two directions fortwo different treatment rooms located on the same floor.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a pre-accelerator system or ion beaminjector for use with embodiments of the present disclosure. In thisexample, pre-accelerator system 20 includes an einzel lens 30 (notvisible in FIG. 2 , but depicted in FIGS. 3A-3B), a pre-accelerator tube26, and a solenoid 510, and is configured to accelerate a negative ionbeam injected from ion source 22. The pre-accelerator system 20 isconfigured to provide acceleration of the beam particles to the energiesrequired for tandem accelerator 40, and to provide overall convergenceof the negative ion beam to match input aperture area at an inputaperture or entrance of the tandem accelerator 40. The pre-acceleratorsystem 20 is further configured to minimize or defocus backflow as itpasses from the tandem accelerator 40 through the pre-accelerator systemin order to reduce the possibility of damage to ion source and/or thebackflow reaching the filaments of the ion source.

In embodiments, the ion source 22 can be configured to provide anegative ion beam upstream of the einzel lens 30, and the negative ionbeam continues to pass through pre-accelerator tube 26 and a magneticfocusing device (e.g., solenoid) 510. The solenoid 510 can be positionedbetween the pre-accelerator tube and the tandem accelerator and iselectrically couplable with a power supply. The negative ion beam passesthrough the solenoid 510 to the tandem accelerator 40.

Pre-accelerator system 20 can also include an ion source vacuum box 24for removing gas, and a pump chamber 28, which, with pre-acceleratortube 26 as well as the other elements described above are part of arelatively low energy beamline leading to the tandem accelerator 40. Theion source vacuum box 24, within which the einzel lens 30 can bepositioned, extends from the ion source 22. The pre-accelerator tube 26can be coupled to the ion source vacuum box 24 and to solenoid 510. Avacuum pump chamber 28 for removing gas can be coupled to the solenoid510 and the tandem accelerator 40. The ion source 22 serves as a sourceof charged particles which can be accelerated, conditioned andeventually used to produce neutrons when delivered to a neutronproducing target. The example embodiments will be described herein withreference to an ion source producing a negative hydrogen ion beam,although embodiments are not limited to such, and other positive ornegative particles can be produced by the source.

The pre-accelerator system 20 can have zero, one, or multiple magneticelements for purposes such as focusing and/or adjusting alignment of thebeam. For example, any such magnetic elements can be used to match thebeam to the beamline axis and the acceptance angle of the tandemaccelerator 40. The ion vacuum box 24 may have ion optics positionedtherein.

There are generally two types of negative ion sources 22, which differby the mechanism of generation of negative ions: the surface type andthe volume type. The surface type generally requires the presence ofcesium (Cs) on specific internal surfaces. The volume type relies onformation of negative ions in the volume of a high current dischargeplasma. While both types of ion sources can deliver the desired negativeion current for applications related to tandem accelerators, surfacetype negative ion sources are undesirable for modulation. That is, formodulation of a negative ion beam in embodiments described herein,negative ion sources of the volume type (e.g., without employing cesium(Cs)) are preferred.

Turning to FIG. 3A, the ion source vacuum box 24 of the ion beaminjector 20 can include an einzel lens 30 positioned therein. As shownin detail in FIG. 3B, the einzel lens 30, which can be mounteddownstream of a ground lens 25 of the ion source 22 within the vacuumbox 24, includes a mounting plate 32, two grounded electrodes 34 mountedto the mounting plate 32 and coupled to one of another in spacedrelation with mounting rods 35, and a powered (biased) electrode 38positioned between the two grounded electrodes 34. The electrodes 34 and38 are made in the form of cylindrical apertures and assembled to havean axial axis coinciding with the beam path. The powered electrode 38 issupported by isolators (or insulators) 36 extending between the groundedelectrodes or apertures 34.

The standoff isolators 36 may have a geometric design configured toinhibit development of electron avalanches and to suppress streamerformation and propagation which may result in a flashover formation. Thegeometric design of standoff isolators 36 may partially screen anexternal electric field on the insulator surface which drives theelectron avalanche and effectively increases the path length. Inaddition, the materials of insulators/isolators 36 tend to diminishsputtering effects, loss of negative ions on surfaces, volumecontamination, and formation of a conductive coating on the insulator orisolator surfaces leading to a decrease of electrical strength.

Functionally, action of the einzel lens 30 on the beam of chargedparticles advancing from the ion source 22 is akin to the action ofoptical focusing lens on a beam of light. Namely, the einzel lens 30 isfocusing the incoming diverging beam into a spot at the focal plane.However, here the electric fields formed between the pairs of thepowered electrode 38 and the two grounded electrodes 34 determine thefocusing strength of the einzel lens (focal length distance).

By mounting the einzel lens 30 downstream of the ion source ground lens25, it diminishes beam free space transportation where the beam issubjected to divergence due to intrinsic space charge.

The dimensions of the axisymmetric or substantially axisymmetric designof the einzel lens 30 are optimized to avoid direct interaction ofextracted ions with exposed surfaces of the einzel lens 30.

In operation, negative polarity biasing of the einzel lens 30 results inhigher focusing power over the positive bias polarity. Also inoperation, the method of power delivery to the einzel lens 30 providesfor gradual voltage growth instead of instantaneous voltage application,which reduces growth rates of electric field (dE/dt) atmicro-protrusions existing on surfaces of the einzel lens 30 responsiblefor plasma formation via, for example, an explosive emission mechanism.Impeding of such plasma formation improves electrical strength.

Negative bias potential for an einzel lens in high background pressureis usually not possible due to electrical breakdowns. The configurationof the example embodiments of the einzel lens provided herein, enablesthe application of negative bias voltages sufficiently high for the 100%current utilization without electrical breakdowns.

FIG. 4 illustrates an example pre-accelerator tube 26 for use withembodiments of the present disclosure. An example pre-accelerator tube26 can be cylindrical in shape and includes a first pre-accelerator tubeend 26A and a second pre-accelerator tube end 26B. In embodiments, thefirst pre-accelerator tube end 26A includes a fixture (e.g., a terminalor electrode) protruding outward from an inner cylindrical structure ofthe pre-accelerator tube. In embodiments, the second pre-acceleratortube end 26B includes a fixture (e.g., a terminal or electrode)protruding outward from an inner cylindrical structure of thepre-accelerator tube. That is, the fixtures protruding outward from theinner cylindrical structure of the pre-accelerator tube are cylindricalin shape but may have a larger diameter than that of the innercylindrical structure. In embodiments, pre-accelerator tube 26 includesa plurality of pre-accelerator tube terminals 27-1, 27-2, 27-3, 27-4,27-5, 27-6 evenly spaced from the first pre-accelerator tube end 26A tothe second pre-accelerator tube end 26B. The first pre-accelerator tubeend 26A may be referred to in some implementations as a proximalpre-accelerator tube end 26A in relation to the second pre-acceleratortube 26B being a distal pre-accelerator tube end 26B. Each pair ofadjacent pre-accelerator tube terminals (e.g., pre-accelerator tubeterminals 27-1, 27-2, 27-3, 27-4, 27-5, 27-6) may have one or moreresistors connected therebetween, and the resistors can have the same(preferred) or different resistance values. In embodiments, a firstterminal 27-1 at the first pre-accelerator tube end 26A is electricallycouplable with a first power supply, while a second terminal 27-2 at thesecond pre-accelerator tube end 26B is electrically couplable withground. Accordingly, voltage may be distributed evenly across thepre-accelerator tube 26. In embodiments, pre-accelerator tube 26 can beconfigured to control convergence of a negative ion beam passingtherethrough such that the negative ion beam at least continues on aparallel path or continuously converges while passing through thepre-accelerator tube 26.

In embodiments, beam focusing properties of the pre-accelerator tube 26are determined by a length and inner diameter of pre-accelerator tube26. A combination of its length and inner diameter is selected toachieve a focal length/distance of 500-1500 mm at accelerating voltagesof 60-180 kV. A length L, width W, and inner diameter of thepre-accelerator tube may vary according to a given application for whichthe pre-accelerator tube is used.

FIG. 6 illustrates beam convergence within an example pre-acceleratorsystem, for use with embodiments of the present disclosure. An ionsource 22 is optionally housed in an ion source enclosure 500. The ionsource 22 includes a plurality of electrodes, such as a plasma electrode320, a ground lens (e.g., or accelerator electrode) 310, and anextraction electrode 330. Ion source 22 is coupled with an einzel lens30, and a negative ion beam is injected or propagated from the ionsource 22 through einzel lens 30, pre-accelerator tube 26, and solenoid510 to an input aperture of a tandem accelerator 40.

Ion source 22 can be electrically coupled, at accelerator electrode(e.g., or ground lens) 310, with a first terminal of a power supply PS3,which is in turn electrically coupled at a second terminal to anenclosure of ion source 22. Biasing of ion source 22 at acceleratorelectrode (e.g., or ground lens) 310 configures the pre-acceleratorsystem 20 for maintaining and propagating a negative ion beam when sucha beam is passed from the ion source 22. A plasma electrode 320 of ionsource 22 can be electrically coupled to a power supply PS1 and anextraction electrode 330 of ion source 22 can be electrically coupled toa modulator (not shown) which is, in turn, electrically coupled toanother power supply (not shown). Biasing of plasma electrode 320enables ion source 22 to maintain a plasma within the ion source 22 tobe used for extraction into a negative ion beam when extractionelectrode 330 is biased. When extraction electrode 330 is biased, anegative ion beam is passed or propagated from ion source 22 towardstandem accelerator 40. When extraction electrode 330 is not biased, anegative ion beam is not passed or propagated from ion source 22 alongto the tandem accelerator 40. Pre-accelerator tube 26 may be biased tothe power supply PS1 at a first pre-accelerator tube terminal 27-1, andmay be biased to ground at a second pre-accelerator tube terminal 27-2.

As discussed above, tandem accelerator 40 is powered by a high voltagepower supply PS5 coupled thereto, and can produce a proton beam with anenergy generally equal to twice the voltage applied to the acceleratingelectrodes positioned within the tandem accelerator 40. Power supply PS5may be governed by a feedback loop (not shown) whereby voltage stabilitywithin the tandem accelerator 40 is maintained.

FIG. 8 is a schematic and block diagram of an example embodiment ofpre-accelerator system 20 in operation, and depicts the capability ofpre-accelerator system 20 to converge negative ion beam 600. As seenhere, beam 600 is divergent upon passing from ion source 22 to einzellens 30 (as illustrated from point of travel P₀ to point of travel P₁ inFIG. 8 ). Einzel lens 30 is negatively biased to provide beam focusingin order to lessen the divergence of beam 600. Here, einzel lens 30causes beam 600 to transition from a divergent form to a convergentform. Beam 600 begins to diverge again after exiting lens 30, butremains in approximately the same space constrained state between source22 and pre-accelerator tube 26 (e.g., from point of travel P₁ to pointof travel P₂ in FIG. 8 ). Pre-accelerator tube 26 can be configured tofurther provide beam focusing in order to promote convergence ofnegative ion beam 600 (e.g., from point of travel P₂ to point of travelP₃ in FIG. 8 ). Solenoid 510 can be biased in order to provide finetuning of beam focusing to further promote convergence of negative ionbeam 600 such that negative ion beam 600 is of appropriate quality andfocused size when it reaches an input aperture of tandem accelerator 40(e.g., from point of travel P₃ to point of travel P₄ in FIG. 8 ).Controlling the bias on solenoid 510 further allows fine tuning of beamfocusing in order to ensure the beam is sufficiently and accuratelyaimed at the input aperture of tandem accelerator 40. Control of powersupply PS1 enables coarse adjustment of a negative ion beam aimed at theinput aperture of the tandem accelerator. Control of power supply PS2enables fine tuning adjustment of the negative ion beam aimed at theinput aperture.

FIG. 8 also illustrates a backflow defocusing operation of the exampleembodiment of pre-accelerator system 20. As discussed above, lowenergies of the negative ions injected into a tandem accelerator createunfavorable conditions in the first accelerating gap of the tandemaccelerator. In conventional systems, when a negative ion beam isinjected into the first acceleration gap (e.g., G1) of the tandemaccelerator, the ions typically reach an energy of about 100 keV in themiddle of the first acceleration gap.

Use of a gaseous medium (e.g., argon, nitrogen) in the charge exchangedevice of the tandem accelerator 40 creates the potential for the chargeexchange gas to become ionized by the beam. Gaseous neutrals come fromthe charge exchange device in the center of the tandem accelerator whenthe gas is pumped into, e.g., a charge exchange tube to strip electronsfrom the negative ion beam (e.g., the H− ions) to create protons (e.g.,H+ ions). The pressure of background gas in the tandem accelerator witha gaseous charge exchange device is often relatively high, and a largerparticle cross section (e.g., 100 keV in FIG. 5 ) occurring in the firstaccelerating gap of the tandem accelerator (e.g., G1) means that anegative hydrogen ion is more likely to collide with background gas inthe first accelerating gap of the tandem accelerator 40 and subsequentlyionize, which can lead to deleterious effects such as arcing andbreakdowns. Further, because gaseous neutrals travel from the chargeexchange device in the center of the tandem accelerator back throughpreceding accelerating gaps (e.g., G4, G3, G2, G1) ionization of thebackground gas occurs in the inner gaps as well as the firstaccelerating gap.

In present embodiments, the ions of negative ion beam reach an energy ofabout 100 keV at an approximate mid-point of the pre-accelerator tube 26(e.g., at some point between, for example, point of travel P₂ and pointof travel P₃ in FIG. 8 as opposed to inside the first accelerating gapG1 of the tandem accelerator). This is because there are fewer gaseousneutrals in the middle of the pre-accelerator tube 26 due to a vacuumpump chamber (not shown) positioned between the pre-accelerator system20 and the tandem accelerator 40, as well as the configuration of thepre-accelerator system 20. The position where the beam reaches themaximum cross-section energy of the beam's constituent particle can varyfrom the mid-point of the pre-accelerator tube 26, and other suchpositions upstream of the input aperture of the tandem accelerator arewithin the scope of the present subject matter (e.g., a position inproximity with end 26A or 26B of pre-accelerator tube 26, a positionwithin solenoid 510, a position within einzel lens 30, between theaforementioned components, are examples of such).

Notwithstanding the aforementioned improvements over existing systemswith respect to backflow in the first accelerating gap of a tandemaccelerator, pre-accelerator system 20 may still be subject to backflow610 passing through the system which originates from the tandemaccelerator 40 to which the pre-accelerator system 26 provides anegative ion beam 600. Backflow is positive ionized gas that isaccelerated by a magnetic field in the opposite direction of theaccelerated beam. Gaseous neutrals traveling from the charge exchangedevice back through the preceding accelerating gaps (e.g., G4, G3, G2,G1) represent particles that can potentially ionize (through collisions)and become backflow. Vacuum removal of a significant amount of thegaseous neutrals coming from the tandem accelerator 40 results in areduction of possible particles that can become backflow.

Accordingly, the components of pre-accelerator system 26 are alsoconfigured to minimize, defocus, or eliminate backflow 610 as it passesthrough the pre-accelerator system 26 in order to reduce the possibilityof damage to ion source 22 and/or to eliminate the possibility of thebackflow reaching the filaments of the ion source 22. Any biasedcomponent can defocus backflow 610, including einzel lens 30,pre-accelerator tube 26, and/or solenoid 510. For example, solenoid 510can defocus backflow, and the amount or direction of defocus can becontrolled by adjustment of the voltage applied to solenoid 510 (e.g.,by second power supply PS2), which enables fine tuning of the solenoid510 contribution toward beam focusing as well as backflow defocusing.

Similarly, adjustment of control of the biasing of pre-accelerator tube26 and einzel lens 30 aid in de-focusing backflow 610. That is, thepre-accelerator tube 26 and einzel lens 30 may be controlledindependently to reach the desired degree of focus of beam 600 anddefocus of backflow 610 for minimization thereof.

Shown in FIG. 8 , backflow 610 is defocused or diverted from the beamaxis as it travels through solenoid 510 and pre-accelerator tube 26(e.g., from point of travel P₄ to point of travel P₂ in FIG. 8 ).Backflow may be collected by any component of the beam system regardlessof whether that component is biased. As shown here, some backflow iscollected by cooling device 520, which is configured to cool theelectrodes of einzel lens 30.

Once the backflow 610 reaches the ion source 22, it is defocused suchthat the possibility of damage to the ion source 22 is reduced oreliminated, and cooling device 660 further reduces or eliminatesbackflow 610 as it reaches an upstream housing (e.g., backplate) 650 ofthe ion source 22. FIG. 9 illustrates an example ion source backplateassembly for use with embodiments of the present disclosure. Inembodiments, backplate assembly 650 includes filaments for generatingplasma to create negative hydrogen ions from the ion source 22. Inembodiments, backplate assembly 650 is optionally cooled using coolingdevice 660 (e.g., water cooling) in order to prevent backflow 610, whichmay strike the backplate assembly 650 at a backflow contact point 670,from reaching the filaments. This ensures stability of the ion source 22and eliminates reduction in reliability of the ion source 22 andpre-accelerator system 20 based upon backflow 620 from gaps within thetandem accelerator 40 and backflow 610 traveling through thepre-accelerator system 20.

FIG. 10 is a block diagram showing an example system 3000 within whichembodiments of the present disclosure may operate. For example, theillustrated example system 3000 includes pre-accelerator system 3001,one or more computing devices 3002, and a tandem accelerator system3003. In embodiments, pre-accelerator system 3001 and tandem acceleratorsystem 3003 may collectively be part of an example neutron beam system(e.g., system 10 above). In such embodiments, the neutron beam system 10may employ one or more control systems with which one or more computingdevices 3002 may communicate in order to interact with the systems andcomponents of the neutron beam system 10. Each of these devices and/orsystems are configured to communicate directly with one another (notshown) or via a local network, such as network 3004.

Computing devices 3002 may be embodied by various user devices, systems,computing apparatuses, and the like. For example, a first computingdevice 3002 may be a desktop computer or work station associated with aparticular user, while another computing device 3002 may be a laptopcomputer associated with a particular user, and yet another computingdevice 3002 may be a mobile device (e.g., a tablet or smart device).Each of the computing devices 3002 may be configured to communicate withthe pre-accelerator system 3001 and/or tandem accelerator system 3003,for example through a user interface accessible via the computingdevice. For example, a user may execute a desktop application on thecomputing device 3002, which is configured to communicate with thepre-accelerator system 3001 and/or tandem accelerator system 3003.

By using a computing device 3002 to communicate with one or more of thepre-accelerator system 3001 or tandem accelerator system 3003, a usermay provide operating parameters for either of the systems according toembodiments described herein. In embodiments, pre-accelerator system3001 may include a control system 3001A by which pre-accelerator system3001 may receive and apply operating parameters from computing device3002. In embodiments, tandem accelerator system 3003 may include acontrol system 3003A by which tandem accelerator system 3003 may receiveand apply operating parameters from computing device 3002.

Any of the control aspects described herein can be controlled oradjusted, managed, and/or monitored with system 3000 (e.g., computingdevice 3002, control system 3001A or 3003A). Examples of these controlaspects include: the bias or voltage applied to any electrode of ionsource 22, the bias of voltage applied to einzel lens 30, the bias orvoltage applied to pre-accelerator tube 26, the bias or voltage appliedto solenoid 510, the bias or voltage applied to tandem accelerator 40,the voltage output by any of the power supplies PS1-PS5, the sequence ofbiases or voltages applied to the components of the system formodulation, startup, or breakdown recovery, adjustment of beam positionfor alignment, adjustment of beam focal position, adjustment of backflowdefocus amount, and others.

Communications network 3004 may include any wired or wirelesscommunication network including, for example, a wired or wireless localarea network (LAN), personal area network (PAN), metropolitan areanetwork (MAN), wide area network (WAN), or the like, as well as anyhardware, software and/or firmware required to implement it (such as,e.g., network routers, etc.). For example, communications network 3004may include an 802.11, 802.16, 802.20, and/or WiMax network. Further,the communications network 3004 may include a public network, such asthe Internet, a private network, such as an intranet, or combinationsthereof, and may utilize a variety of networking protocols now availableor later developed including, but not limited to TCP/IP based networkingprotocols.

The computing device 3002 and control systems 3001A and 3003A may beembodied by one or more computing systems, such as apparatus 3100 shownin FIG. 11 . As illustrated in FIG. 11 , apparatus 3100 may include aprocessor 3102, a memory 3104, an input and/or output circuitry 3106,and communications device or circuitry 3108. These components 3102-3108may include similar hardware. For example, two components may bothleverage use of the same processor, network interface, storage medium,or the like to perform their associated functions, such that duplicatehardware is not required for each device.

The terms “device” and/or “circuitry” should be understood broadly toinclude hardware alone, or a combination of hardware and software (e.g.,software for configuring the hardware or for accomplishing functionswith the hardware). For example, in some embodiments, device and/orcircuitry may include processing circuitry, storage media, networkinterfaces, input/output devices, and the like. In some embodiments,other elements of the apparatus 3100 may provide or supplement thefunctionality of particular device(s). For example, the processor 3102may provide processing functionality, the memory 3104 may providestorage functionality, the communications device or circuitry 3108 mayprovide network interface functionality, and the like.

In some embodiments, processor 3102 (and/or co-processor or any otherprocessing circuitry assisting or otherwise associated with theprocessor) may be in communication with memory 3104 via a bus forpassing information among components of the apparatus. Memory 3104 maybe non-transitory and may include, for example, one or more volatileand/or non-volatile memories. In other words, for example, memory 3104may be an electronic storage device (e.g., a computer readable storagemedium). Memory 3104 may be configured to store information, data,content, applications, instructions, or the like, for enabling theapparatus to carry out various functions in accordance with exampleembodiments of the present disclosure.

Processor 3102 may be embodied in a number of different ways and may,for example, include one or more processing devices configured toperform independently. Additionally or alternatively, the processor mayinclude one or more processors configured in tandem via a bus to enableindependent execution of instructions, pipelining, and/ormultithreading. The use of the terms “processing device” and/or“processing circuitry” may be understood to include a single coreprocessor, a multi-core processor, multiple processors internal to theapparatus, and/or remote or “cloud” processors.

In an example embodiment, processor 3102 may be configured to executeinstructions stored in memory 3104 or otherwise accessible to theprocessor. Alternatively or additionally, processor 3104 may beconfigured to execute hard-coded functionality. As such, whetherconfigured by hardware or software methods, or by a combination ofhardware with software, processor 3104 may represent an entity (e.g.,physically embodied in circuitry) capable of performing operationsaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure while configuredaccordingly. Alternatively, as another example, when the processor isembodied as an executor of software instructions, the instructions mayspecifically configure the processor to perform the algorithms and/oroperations described herein when the instructions are executed.

In some embodiments, apparatus 3100 may include input/output device 3106that may, in turn, be in communication with processor 3102 to provideoutput to the user and, in some embodiments, to receive input from theuser. Input/output device 3106 may include a user interface and mayinclude a device display, such as a user device display, that mayinclude a web user interface, a mobile application, a client device, orthe like. In some embodiments, input/output device 3106 may also includea keyboard, a mouse, a joystick, a touch screen, touch areas, soft keys,a microphone, a speaker, or other input/output mechanisms. The processorand/or user interface circuitry including the processor may beconfigured to control one or more functions of one or more userinterface elements through computer program instructions (e.g., softwareand/or firmware) stored on a memory accessible to the processor (e.g.,memory 3104, and/or the like).

The communications device or circuitry 3108 may be any device orcircuitry embodied in either hardware or a combination of hardware andsoftware that is configured to receive and/or transmit data from/to anetwork and/or any other device or circuitry in communication withapparatus 3100. In this regard, communications device or circuitry 3108may include, for example, a network interface for enablingcommunications with a wired or wireless communication network. Forexample, communications device or circuitry 3108 may include one or morenetwork interface cards, antennas, buses, switches, routers, modems, andsupporting hardware and/or software, or any other device suitable forenabling communications via a network. Additionally or alternatively,the communication interface may include the circuitry for interactingwith the antenna(s) to cause transmission of signals via the antenna(s)or to handle receipt of signals received via the antenna(s). Thesesignals may be transmitted by the apparatus 3100 using any of a numberof wireless personal area network (PAN) technologies, such as currentand future Bluetooth standards (including Bluetooth and Bluetooth LowEnergy (BLE)), infrared wireless (e.g., IrDA), FREC, ultra-wideband(UWB), induction wireless transmission, or the like. In addition, itshould be understood that these signals may be transmitted using Wi-Fi,Near Field Communications (NFC), Worldwide Interoperability forMicrowave Access (WiMAX), or other proximity-based communicationsprotocols.

The embodiments of devices that act on or manipulate digital informationmay be configured entirely as hardware or any combination of softwareand hardware. Furthermore, embodiments may take the form of a computerprogram product on at least one non-transitory computer-readable storagemedium having computer-readable program instructions (e.g., computersoftware) embodied in the storage medium. Any suitable computer-readablestorage medium may be utilized including non-transitory hard disks,CD-ROMs, flash memory, optical storage devices, or magnetic storagedevices. Processing circuitry for use with embodiments of the presentdisclosure can execute software instructions stored on memory that causethe processing circuitry to take a host of different actions and controlthe other components in figures herein.

Memory for use with embodiments of the present disclosure can be sharedby one or more of the various functional units, or can be distributedamongst two or more of them (e.g., as separate memories present withindifferent chips). Memory can also be a separate chip of its own. Thememory is non-transitory, and can further include volatile (e.g., RAM,etc.) and/or non-volatile memory (e.g., ROM, flash memory, F-RAM, etc.).

Any such computer program instructions and/or other type of code may beloaded onto a computer, processor, or other programmable apparatus'circuitry to produce a machine, such that the computer, processor, orother programmable circuitry that executes the code on the machinecreates the structure for implementing various functions, includingthose described herein. Computer program instructions for carrying outoperations in accordance with the described subject matter may bewritten in any combination of one or more programming languages,including an object oriented programming language such as Java,JavaScript, Smalltalk, C++, C#, Transact-SQL, XML, PHP or the like andconventional procedural programming languages, such as the “C”programming language or similar programming languages.

Various aspects of the present subject matter are set forth below, inreview of, and/or in supplementation to, the embodiments described thusfar, with the emphasis here being on the interrelation andinterchangeability of the following embodiments. In other words, anemphasis is on the fact that each feature of the embodiments can becombined with each and every other feature unless explicitly statedotherwise or logically implausible.

In many embodiments, a beam system includes a particle source configuredto emit a charged particle beam, a pre-accelerator system configured toaccelerate the charged particle beam from the particle source, and anaccelerator configured to accelerate the charged particle beam from thepre-accelerator system. In some of these embodiments, the particlesource is an ion source and the charged particle beam is an ion beamcomprising negative hydrogen ions. In some of these embodiments, thepre-accelerator system includes at least one of: an electrostatic lens,a pre-accelerator device, or a magnetic focusing device. In some ofthese embodiments, the pre-accelerator system includes an electrostaticlens, a pre-accelerator device, and a magnetic focusing device.

In some of these embodiments, the electrostatic lens is an einzel lens,the pre-accelerator device is a pre-accelerator tube including aplurality of acceleration terminals, and the magnetic focusing device isa solenoid. In some of these embodiments, the electrostatic lens isdownstream of the particle source, the pre-accelerator device isdownstream of the electrostatic lens, and the magnetic focusing deviceis downstream of the pre-accelerator device. In some of theseembodiments, the electrostatic lens is an einzel lens including twogrounded electrodes coupled to one another in spaced relation, and abiased electrode positioned between the two grounded electrodes andsupported by insulators extending therebetween. In some of theseembodiments, one or more of the biased electrode or the two groundedelectrodes are configured for negative biasing.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator tube includes a firstpre-accelerator tube terminal and a second pre-accelerator tubeterminal. In some of these embodiments, the first pre-accelerator tubeterminal is electrically couplable with a first power supply. In some ofthese embodiments, the second pre-accelerator tube terminal iselectrically couplable with ground.

In some of these embodiments, the accelerator is a tandem acceleratorincluding a plurality of input electrodes, a charge exchange device, anda plurality of output electrodes. In some of these embodiments, thecharged particle beam is a negative ion beam. In some of theseembodiments, the plurality of input electrodes are configured toaccelerate a negative ion beam from the pre-accelerator system, thecharge exchange device is configured to convert the negative ion beam toa positive beam, and the plurality of output electrodes are configuredto accelerate the positive beam.

In some of these embodiments, the beam system further includes a targetdevice configured to form a neutral beam from the positive beam receivedfrom the tandem accelerator.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system is positionedadjacent to and downstream from the particle source.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator device is positioneddownstream from the electrostatic lens. In some of these embodiments,the magnetic focusing device is positioned downstream from thepre-accelerator device. In some of these embodiments, thepre-accelerator device is positioned downstream from one or more of theelectrostatic lens or the particle source. In some of these embodiments,the magnetic focusing device is positioned downstream from one or moreof an einzel lens, a pre-accelerator tube, or the particle source.

In some of these embodiments, the beam system further includes one ormore vacuum pump chambers. In some of these embodiments, a first vacuumpump chamber is positioned between the pre-accelerator system and theaccelerator. In some of these embodiments, a second vacuum pump chamberis positioned between the particle source and the pre-acceleratorsystem.

In some of these embodiments, one or more vacuum pump chambers arepositioned on the accelerator.

In some of these embodiments, the particle source includes a wall havingone or more filaments located adjacent thereto. In some of theseembodiments, the beam system includes a first cooling device configuredto cool the wall. In some of these embodiments, the beam system includesa second cooling device configured to cool the einzel lens. In some ofthese embodiments, the first and second cooling devices are configuredto use a fluid coolant.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system is configuredto cause the charged particle beam to propagate from the particle sourceto converge at an input aperture of the accelerator.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system is configuredto defocus and collect ionized backflow that propagates from theaccelerator towards the particle source.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system is configuredto transition the particle beam from the particle source from adivergent state to a convergent state.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system includes anelectrostatic lens configured to transition the particle beam from theparticle source from a divergent state to a convergent state. In some ofthese embodiments, the electrostatic lens is controllable to tune beamfocus or backflow defocus.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system includes amagnetic focusing device controllable to tune beam focus or backflowdefocus.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system includes apre-accelerator tube controllable to tune beam focus or backflowdefocus.

In some of these embodiments, the beam system includes a plurality ofpower supplies configured to adjustably output a variable power to themagnetic focusing device, the electrostatic lens, and thepre-accelerator tube.

In some of these embodiments, the beam system is configured toaccelerate the charged particles to their maximum cross section beforeentrance into the accelerator. In some of these embodiments, the chargedparticles are negative hydrogen ions. In some of these embodiments, thebeam system is configured to accelerate the charged particles to anenergy of 100 keV before entrance into the accelerator. In some of theseembodiments, the beam system is configured to accelerate the chargedparticles to their maximum cross section at a position in apre-accelerator tube of the pre-accelerator system. In some of theseembodiments, the position is in a central region of the pre-acceleratortube.

In some of these embodiments, the beam system includes a vacuum pumpchamber configured to remove gas exiting the accelerator into thepre-accelerator system.

In some of these embodiments, the particle source is positioned suchthat the charged particle beam is emitted along a same or substantiallysimilar axis that traverses the accelerator, along which chargedparticles passing through the accelerator are accelerated.

In some of these embodiments, the beam system includes a control system.In some of these embodiments, the control system is configured toreceive operating parameters or instructions from a computing device. Insome of these embodiments, the control system is configured to transmitoperating data to the computing device. In some of these embodiments,the control system is configured to control at least one of thefollowing: a voltage applied to an electrode of the particle source, avoltage applied to an electrostatic lens of the pre-accelerator system,a voltage applied to a pre-accelerator device of the pre-acceleratorsystem, a voltage applied to a magnetic focusing device of thepre-accelerator system, a voltage applied to the accelerator, a voltageoutput by a power supply of the beam system, adjustment of beam positionfor alignment, adjustment of beam focal position, or adjustment ofbackflow defocus amount.

In some of these embodiments, the beam system is configured for use inBoron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT).

In many embodiments, a method of operating a beam system includesemitting a beam comprising charged particles from a particle source,accelerating the beam with a pre-accelerator system towards anaccelerator, and accelerating the beam with the accelerator.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system includes one ormore of: an electrostatic lens, a pre-accelerator device, or a magneticfocusing device. In some of these embodiments, the electrostatic lens isan einzel lens, the pre-accelerator device is a pre-accelerator tubeincluding a plurality of acceleration terminals, and the magneticfocusing device is a solenoid.

In some of these embodiments, the accelerator is a tandem accelerator.In some of these embodiments, the tandem accelerator includes a chargeexchange device. In some of these embodiments, accelerating the beamwith the pre-accelerator system towards the accelerator includesaccelerating the beam such that the charged particles reach theirmaximum cross section prior to entering the accelerator. In some ofthese embodiments, the charged particles are negative hydrogen ions. Insome of these embodiments, the charged particles reach their maximumcross-section within a pre-accelerator tube of the pre-acceleratorsystem.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes converging the beamwith the pre-accelerator system.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes adjusting powersupplied to the pre-accelerator system to control convergence of thebeam. In some of these embodiments, converging the beam furthercomprises transitioning the beam from a divergent state to a convergentstate with the pre-accelerator system. In some of these embodiments, thebeam is converged with one or more of: an electrostatic lens, apre-accelerator device, or a magnetic focusing device. In some of theseembodiments, the pre-accelerator system includes an electrostatic lens,a pre-accelerator device, and a magnetic focusing device. In some ofthese embodiments, the electrostatic lens is downstream of the particlesource, the pre-accelerator device is downstream of the electrostaticlens, and the magnetic focusing device is downstream of thepre-accelerator device.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes adjusting powersupplied to the pre-accelerator device to control convergence of thebeam.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes adjusting powersupplied to the magnetic focusing device to control focus of the beam.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes adjusting powersupplied to the pre-accelerator device to control convergence of thebeam and adjusting power supplied to the magnetic focusing device tocontrol focus of the beam. In some of these embodiments, adjusting powersupplied to the magnetic focusing device to control focus of the beamincludes adjusting power supplied to the magnetic focusing device tofocus the beam at an input aperture of the accelerator.

In some of these embodiments, the particle source is positioned suchthat the beam is emitted along a same or substantially similar axis thattraverses the accelerator, along which charged particles passing throughthe accelerator are accelerated.

In some of these embodiments, the particle source is one of a volumetype source and a surface type source.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes defocusing backflowfrom the accelerator with the pre-accelerator system. In some of theseembodiments, the backflow includes ionized background gas. In some ofthese embodiments, the method includes adjusting power supplied to thepre-accelerator system to control defocusing of the backflow. In some ofthese embodiments, the method includes adjusting power supplied to thepre-accelerator system to cause backflow to be collected by one or morecomponents of the beam system. In some of these embodiments, the methodincludes adjusting power supplied to the pre-accelerator system to causebackflow to avoid a backflow sensitive component of the particle source.In some of these embodiments, the backflow sensitive component is afilament.

In some of these embodiments, the backflow is defocused with one or moreof: an electrostatic lens, a pre-accelerator device, or a magneticfocusing device.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system includes anelectrostatic lens, a pre-accelerator device, and a magnetic focusingdevice. In some of these embodiments, with respect to travel of thebeam, the electrostatic lens is downstream of the particle source, thepre-accelerator device is downstream of the electrostatic lens, and themagnetic focusing device is downstream of the pre-accelerator device. Insome of these embodiments, the method includes adjusting power suppliedto the pre-accelerator device to control defocusing of the backflow. Insome of these embodiments, the method includes adjusting power suppliedto the magnetic focusing device to control defocusing of the backflow.In some of these embodiments, the method includes adjusting powersupplied to the pre-accelerator device to control defocusing of thebackflow and adjusting power supplied to the magnetic focusing device tocontrol defocusing of the backflow.

In some of these embodiments, the particle source is positioned suchthat the beam is emitted along a same or substantially similar axis thattraverses the accelerator, along which charged particles passing throughthe accelerator are accelerated.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes performing vacuumremoval of gas. In some of these embodiments, the method includesperforming vacuum removal of gas at a first position between thepre-accelerator system and the accelerator and at a second positionbetween the particle source and the pre-accelerator system. In some ofthese embodiments, accelerating the beam with the pre-accelerator systemtowards the accelerator includes accelerating the beam such that thecharged particles reach their maximum cross section prior to enteringthe accelerator.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes controlling, with acontrol system of the beam system, at least one of the following: avoltage applied to an electrode of the particle source, a voltageapplied to an electrostatic lens of the pre-accelerator system, avoltage applied to a pre-accelerator device of the pre-acceleratorsystem, a voltage applied to a magnetic focusing device of thepre-accelerator system, a voltage applied to the accelerator, a voltageoutput by a power supply of the beam system, adjustment of beam positionfor alignment, adjustment of beam focal position, or adjustment ofbackflow defocus amount.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes one or more ofreceiving, using a control system, operating parameters or instructionsfrom a computing device, or transmitting, using the control system,operating data to the computing device. In some of these embodiments,the control system is configured for one or more of wireless or wiredcommunications.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes applying the beam to atarget. In some of these embodiments, the particle source is an ionsource and the charged particles are negative hydrogen ions. In some ofthese embodiments, the method includes converting the beam from anegative hydrogen ion beam to a proton beam in the accelerator. In someof these embodiments, applying the beam to a target includes applyingthe proton beam to a neutron generating target.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes using the beam systemin Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT).

In many embodiments, a method of defocusing backflow in a beam systemincludes vacuuming gaseous neutrals from a tandem accelerator andbiasing a pre-accelerator system coupled to the tandem accelerator. Insome of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system is configured todefocus positive ionized gas that is accelerated by a magnetic field inan opposite direction of an accelerated beam of the beam system. In someof these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system includes one or more ofa pre-accelerator tube, an einzel lens, a magnetic focusing device, orsolenoid.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes electrically couplingthe pre-accelerator tube at a first pre-accelerator tube terminal with afirst power supply and at a second pre-accelerator tube terminal withground.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator system is positionedadjacent to and downstream from an ion source.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator tube is mountedadjacent to and downstream from the einzel lens.

In some of these embodiments, the magnetic focusing device is mountedadjacent to and downstream from the pre-accelerator tube.

In some of these embodiments, the pre-accelerator tube is positioneddownstream from one or more of an einzel lens or an ion source.

In some of these embodiments, the einzel lens is positioned downstreamfrom an ion source.

In some of these embodiments, the magnetic focusing device is positioneddownstream from one or more of an einzel lens, the pre-accelerator tube,or an ion source.

In some of these embodiments, a first vacuum pump chamber is positionedbetween the pre-accelerator system and the tandem accelerator. In someof these embodiments, a second vacuum pump chamber is positioned betweenthe ion source and the pre-accelerator system.

In some of these embodiments, one or more vacuum pump chambers arepositioned on a top surface of the tandem accelerator.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes cooling, using a firstcooling device, a backplate of the ion source. In some of theseembodiments, the backplate includes one or more filaments. In some ofthese embodiments, the method includes cooling, using a second coolingdevice, the einzel lens. In some of these embodiments, one or more ofthe first cooling device or second cooling device includes watercooling.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes biasing the magneticfocusing device using a first power supply to tune beam focusing orbackflow defocusing properties of the magnetic focusing device.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes biasing the einzellens using a second power supply to tune beam focusing or backflowdefocusing properties of the einzel lens.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes biasing thepre-accelerator tube using a third power supply to tune beam focusing orbackflow defocusing properties of the pre-accelerator tube.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes positioning the ionsource such that the ions are emitted along a same or substantiallysimilar axis that traverses the tandem accelerator, along which ionspassing through the tandem accelerator are accelerated.

In some of these embodiments, the method includes one or more ofreceiving, using a control system, operating parameters or instructionsfrom a computing device, or transmitting, using the control system,operating data to the computing device.

It should be noted that all features, elements, components, functions,and steps described with respect to any embodiment provided herein areintended to be freely combinable and substitutable with those from anyother embodiment. If a certain feature, element, component, function, orstep is described with respect to only one embodiment, then it should beunderstood that that feature, element, component, function, or step canbe used with every other embodiment described herein unless explicitlystated otherwise. This paragraph therefore serves as antecedent basisand written support for the introduction of claims, at any time, thatcombine features, elements, components, functions, and steps fromdifferent embodiments, or that substitute features, elements,components, functions, and steps from one embodiment with those ofanother, even if the following description does not explicitly state, ina particular instance, that such combinations or substitutions arepossible. It is explicitly acknowledged that express recitation of everypossible combination and substitution is overly burdensome, especiallygiven that the permissibility of each and every such combination andsubstitution will be readily recognized by those of ordinary skill inthe art.

To the extent the embodiments disclosed herein include or operate inassociation with memory, storage, and/or computer readable media, thenthat memory, storage, and/or computer readable media are non-transitory.Accordingly, to the extent that memory, storage, and/or computerreadable media are covered by one or more claims, then that memory,storage, and/or computer readable media is only non-transitory.

As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,”and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictatesotherwise.

While the embodiments are susceptible to various modifications andalternative forms, specific examples thereof have been shown in thedrawings and are herein described in detail. It should be understood,however, that these embodiments are not to be limited to the particularform disclosed, but to the contrary, these embodiments are to cover allmodifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spiritof the disclosure. Furthermore, any features, functions, steps, orelements of the embodiments may be recited in or added to the claims, aswell as negative limitations that define the inventive scope of theclaims by features, functions, steps, or elements that are not withinthat scope.

What is claimed is:
 1. A beam system, comprising: a particle sourceconfigured to emit a charged particle beam; a pre-accelerator systemconfigured to accelerate the charged particle beam from the particlesource, wherein the pre-accelerator system comprises a pre-acceleratordevice comprising a pre-accelerator tube having a plurality ofacceleration terminals; and a tandem accelerator configured toaccelerate the charged particle beam from the pre-accelerator system. 2.The beam system of claim 1, wherein the particle source is an ion sourceand the charged particle beam is an ion beam comprising negativehydrogen ions.
 3. The beam system of claim 1, wherein thepre-accelerator system further comprises an electrostatic lens and amagnetic focusing device, wherein the electrostatic lens is an einzellens and the magnetic focusing device is a solenoid.
 4. The beam systemof claim 3, wherein, with respect to charged particle beam travel, theelectrostatic lens is downstream of the particle source, thepre-accelerator device is downstream of the electrostatic lens, and themagnetic focusing device is downstream of the pre-accelerator device. 5.The beam system of claim 1, wherein the tandem accelerator comprises aplurality of input electrodes, a charge exchange device, and a pluralityof output electrodes.
 6. The beam system of claim 5, wherein the chargedparticle beam is a negative ion beam, and the plurality of inputelectrodes are configured to accelerate a negative ion beam from thepre-accelerator system, the charge exchange device is configured toconvert the negative ion beam to a positive beam, and the plurality ofoutput electrodes are configured to accelerate the positive beam.
 7. Thebeam system of claim 3, wherein the electrostatic lens is an einzel lenscomprising: two grounded electrodes coupled to one another in spacedrelation; and a biased electrode positioned between the two groundedelectrodes and supported by insulators extending therebetween, whereinone or more of the biased electrode or the two grounded electrodes areconfigured for negative biasing.
 8. The beam system of claim 6, furthercomprising a lithium target device configured to form a neutral beamfrom the positive beam received from the tandem accelerator.
 9. The beamsystem of claim 1, wherein the pre-accelerator system is configured tocause the charged particle beam to propagate from the particle source toconverge at an input aperture of the tandem accelerator.
 10. The beamsystem of claim 1, wherein the pre-accelerator system is configured todefocus and collect backflow that propagates from the tandem acceleratortowards the particle source.
 11. The beam system of claim 1, wherein thepre-accelerator system comprises an electrostatic lens configured totransition the particle beam from the particle source from a divergentstate to a convergent state.
 12. The beam system of claim 11, whereinthe electrostatic lens is controllable to tune beam focus or backflowdefocus.
 13. The beam system of claim 1, wherein the system isconfigured to accelerate the charged particles to their maximum crosssection before entrance into the tandem accelerator.
 14. The beam systemof claim 13, wherein the charged particles are negative hydrogen ions.15. The beam system of claim 14, wherein the system is configured toaccelerate the charged particles to an energy of 100 kiloelectron volts(keV) before entrance into the tandem accelerator.
 16. The beam systemof claim 13, wherein the system is configured to accelerate the chargedparticles to their maximum cross section at a position in apre-accelerator tube of the pre-accelerator system.
 17. The beam systemof claim 1, further comprising a vacuum pump chamber configured toremove gas exiting the tandem accelerator into the pre-acceleratorsystem.
 18. The beam system of claim 1, wherein the particle source ispositioned such that the charged particle beam is emitted along a sameor substantially similar axis that traverses the tandem accelerator,along which charged particles passing through the tandem accelerator areaccelerated.
 19. The beam system of claim 1, further comprising acontrol system configured to control at least one of the following: avoltage applied to an electrode of the particle source, a voltageapplied to an electrostatic lens of the pre-accelerator system, avoltage applied to the pre-accelerator device of the pre-acceleratorsystem, a voltage applied to a magnetic focusing device of thepre-accelerator system, a voltage applied to the tandem accelerator, avoltage output by a power supply of the beam system, adjustment ofcharged particle beam position for alignment, or adjustment of chargedparticle beam focal position.
 20. The beam system of claim 1, configuredfor use in Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT).
 21. A method ofoperating a beam system, the method comprising: emitting a beamcomprising charged particles from a particle source; accelerating thebeam with a pre-accelerator system towards a tandem accelerator, whereinthe pre-accelerator system comprises a pre-accelerator device comprisinga pre-accelerator tube having a plurality of acceleration terminals; andaccelerating the beam with the tandem accelerator.
 22. The method ofclaim 21, wherein the pre-accelerator system further comprises anelectrostatic lens and a magnetic focusing device.
 23. The method ofclaim 22, wherein the electrostatic lens is an einzel lens and themagnetic focusing device is a solenoid.
 24. The method of claim 21,wherein accelerating the beam with the pre-accelerator system towardsthe tandem accelerator comprises accelerating the beam such that thecharged particles reach their maximum cross section prior to enteringthe tandem accelerator.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the chargedparticles reach their maximum cross-section within a pre-acceleratortube of the pre-accelerator system.
 26. The method of claim 21, furthercomprising converging the beam with the pre-accelerator system.
 27. Themethod of claim 21, further comprising adjusting power supplied to thepre-accelerator system to control convergence of the beam.
 28. Themethod of claim 21, wherein the particle source is positioned such thatthe beam is emitted along a same or substantially similar axis thattraverses the tandem accelerator, along which charged particles passingthrough the tandem accelerator are accelerated.
 29. The method of claim21, further comprising defocusing backflow from the tandem acceleratorwith the pre-accelerator system.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein thebackflow comprises ionized background gas.
 31. The method of claim 29,further comprising adjusting power supplied to the pre-acceleratorsystem to control defocusing of the backflow.
 32. The method of claim21, wherein the pre-accelerator system further comprises anelectrostatic lens and a magnetic focusing device, and wherein, withrespect to travel of the charged particle beam, the electrostatic lensis downstream of the particle source, the pre-accelerator device isdownstream of the electrostatic lens, and the magnetic focusing deviceis downstream of the pre-accelerator device.
 33. The method of claim 32,further comprising adjusting power supplied to the pre-acceleratordevice to control defocusing of the backflow.
 34. The method of claim32, further comprising adjusting power supplied to the magnetic focusingdevice to control defocusing of the backflow.
 35. The method of claim21, further comprising controlling, with a control system of the beamsystem, the following: a voltage applied to an electrode of the particlesource, a voltage applied to an electrostatic lens of thepre-accelerator system, a voltage applied to the pre-accelerator deviceof the pre-accelerator system, a voltage applied to a magnetic focusingdevice of the pre-accelerator system, a voltage applied to the tandemaccelerator, a voltage output by a power supply of the beam system,adjustment of beam position for alignment, and adjustment of beam focalposition.
 36. The method of claim 21, further comprising applying thebeam to a lithium target that generates a neutron beam.
 37. The methodof claim 21, further comprising using the beam system in Boron NeutronCapture Therapy (BNCT).
 38. A beam system, comprising: a particle sourceconfigured to emit a charged particle beam; a pre-accelerator systemconfigured to accelerate the charged particle beam from the particlesource, wherein the pre-accelerator system comprises a pre-acceleratordevice comprising a pre-accelerator tube having a plurality ofacceleration terminals; an accelerator configured to accelerate thecharged particle beam from the pre-accelerator system; and a lithiumtarget device configured to form a neutral beam from the chargedparticle beam.
 39. The beam system of claim 38, wherein the particlesource is an ion source and the charged particle beam is an ion beamcomprising negative hydrogen ions.
 40. The beam system of claim 38,wherein the pre-accelerator system comprises an electrostatic lens. 41.The beam system of claim 40, wherein the electrostatic lens is an einzellens comprising: two grounded electrodes coupled to one another inspaced relation; and a biased electrode positioned between the twogrounded electrodes and supported by insulators extending therebetween,wherein one or more of the biased electrode or the two groundedelectrodes are configured for negative biasing.
 42. The beam system ofclaim 40, wherein the electrostatic lens is configured to transition thecharged particle beam from the particle source from a divergent state toa convergent state.
 43. The beam system of claim 38, wherein thepre-accelerator system further comprises a magnetic focusing device. 44.The beam system of claim 43, further comprising an electrostatic lensconfigured as an einzel lens, and wherein the magnetic focusing deviceis a solenoid.
 45. The beam system of claim 43, further comprising anelectrostatic lens, wherein, with respect to travel of the chargedparticle beam, the electrostatic lens is downstream of the particlesource, the pre-accelerator device is downstream of the electrostaticlens, and the magnetic focusing device is downstream of thepre-accelerator device.
 46. The beam system of claim 38, wherein theaccelerator is a tandem accelerator comprising a plurality of inputelectrodes, a charge exchange device, and a plurality of outputelectrodes.
 47. The beam system of claim 46, wherein the pre-acceleratorsystem is configured to defocus and collect backflow that propagatesfrom the accelerator towards the particle source.
 48. The beam system ofclaim 46, wherein the charged particle beam is a negative ion beam, andthe plurality of input electrodes are configured to accelerate anegative ion beam from the pre-accelerator system, the charge exchangedevice is configured to convert the negative ion beam to a positivebeam, and the plurality of output electrodes are configured toaccelerate the positive beam.
 49. The beam system of claim 38, whereinthe pre-accelerator system is configured to converge the chargedparticle beam at an input aperture of the accelerator.
 50. The beamsystem of claim 38, wherein the system is configured to acceleratecharged particles of the charged particle beam to their maximum crosssection before entrance into the accelerator.
 51. The beam system ofclaim 50, wherein the charged particles are negative hydrogen ions andthe system is configured to accelerate the charged particles to anenergy of at least 100 kiloelectron volts (keV) before entrance into theaccelerator.
 52. The beam system of claim 38, wherein the system isconfigured to accelerate the charged particles of the charged particlebeam to their maximum cross section at a position in the pre-acceleratortube.
 53. The beam system of claim 38, further comprising a vacuum pumpchamber configured to remove gas exiting the accelerator into thepre-accelerator system.
 54. The beam system of claim 38, wherein theparticle source is positioned such that the charged particle beam isemitted along a same or substantially similar axis that traverses theaccelerator, along which charged particles passing through theaccelerator are accelerated.
 55. The beam system of claim 38, furthercomprising a control system configured to control the following: avoltage applied to an electrode of the particle source, a voltageapplied to an electrostatic lens of the pre-accelerator system, avoltage applied to the pre-accelerator device, a voltage applied to amagnetic focusing device of the pre-accelerator system, a voltageapplied to the accelerator, a voltage output by a power supply of thebeam system, adjustment of charged particle beam position for alignment,and adjustment of charged particle beam focal position.
 56. The beamsystem of claim 38, configured for use in Boron Neutron Capture Therapy(BNCT).
 57. A method of operating a beam system, the method comprising:emitting a beam comprising charged particles from a particle source;accelerating the beam with a pre-accelerator system towards anaccelerator, wherein the pre-accelerator system comprises apre-accelerator device comprising a pre-accelerator tube having aplurality of acceleration terminals; and accelerating the beam, with theaccelerator, into a lithium target such that a neutral beam is formedfrom the charged particle beam.
 58. The method of claim 57, wherein thepre-accelerator system further comprises an electrostatic lens and amagnetic focusing device.
 59. The method of claim 58, wherein theelectrostatic lens is an einzel lens and the magnetic focusing device isa solenoid.
 60. The method of claim 57, wherein accelerating the beamwith the pre-accelerator system towards the accelerator comprisesaccelerating the beam such that the charged particles reach theirmaximum cross section prior to entering the accelerator.
 61. The methodof claim 60, wherein the charged particles reach their maximumcross-section within the pre-accelerator tube.
 62. The method of claim57, further comprising converging the beam with the pre-acceleratorsystem.
 63. The method of claim 57, further comprising adjusting powersupplied to the pre-accelerator system to control convergence of thebeam.
 64. The method of claim 57, wherein the pre-accelerator systemfurther comprises an electrostatic lens and a magnetic focusing device,and wherein the electrostatic lens is downstream of the particle source,the pre-accelerator device is downstream of the electrostatic lens, andthe magnetic focusing device is downstream of the pre-acceleratordevice.
 65. The method of claim 57, wherein the particle source ispositioned such that the beam is emitted along a same or substantiallysimilar axis that traverses the accelerator, along which chargedparticles passing through the accelerator are accelerated.
 66. Themethod of claim 57, wherein the accelerator is a tandem acceleratorcomprising a plurality of input electrodes, a charge exchange device,and a plurality of output electrodes.
 67. The method of claim 66,further comprising defocusing backflow from the tandem accelerator withthe pre-accelerator system.
 68. The method of claim 67, wherein thebackflow comprises ionized background gas.
 69. The method of claim 66,further comprising adjusting power supplied to the pre-acceleratorsystem to control defocusing of the backflow.
 70. The method of claim57, further comprising controlling, with a control system of the beamsystem, the following: a voltage applied to an electrode of the particlesource, a voltage applied to an electrostatic lens of thepre-accelerator system, a voltage applied to the pre-accelerator device,a voltage applied to a magnetic focusing device of the pre-acceleratorsystem, a voltage applied to the accelerator, a voltage output by apower supply of the beam system, adjustment of charged particle beamposition for alignment, and adjustment of beam focal position.
 71. Themethod of claim 57, further comprising using the beam system in BoronNeutron Capture Therapy (BNCT).
 72. A beam system, comprising: aparticle source configured to emit a charged particle beam; apre-accelerator system configured to accelerate the charged particlebeam from the particle source, wherein the pre-accelerator systemcomprises an einzel lens, a pre-accelerator tube comprising a pluralityof acceleration terminals, and a solenoid; and an accelerator configuredto accelerate the charged particle beam from the pre-accelerator system.73. The beam system of claim 72, wherein the einzel lens comprises: twogrounded electrodes coupled to one another in spaced relation; and abiased electrode positioned between the two grounded electrodes andsupported by insulators extending therebetween, wherein one or more ofthe biased electrode or the two grounded electrodes are configured fornegative biasing.
 74. The beam system of claim 72, wherein, with respectto charged particle beam travel, the einzel lens is downstream of theparticle source, the pre-accelerator tube is downstream of the einzellens, and the solenoid is downstream of the pre-accelerator tube. 75.The beam system of claim 72, wherein the einzel lens is controllable totune beam focus or backflow defocus.
 76. The beam system of claim 72,wherein the accelerator is a tandem accelerator comprising a pluralityof input electrodes, a charge exchange device, and a plurality of outputelectrodes.
 77. The beam system of claim 76, wherein the chargedparticle beam is a negative ion beam, and the plurality of inputelectrodes are configured to accelerate a negative ion beam from thepre-accelerator system, the charge exchange device is configured toconvert the negative ion beam to a positive beam, and the plurality ofoutput electrodes are configured to accelerate the positive beam. 78.The beam system of claim 72, further comprising a target deviceconfigured to form a neutral beam from the positive beam received fromthe tandem accelerator.
 79. The beam system of claim 78, wherein thetarget device is a lithium target device.
 80. The beam system of claim72, wherein the pre-accelerator system is configured to converge thecharged particle beam at an input aperture of the accelerator.
 81. Thebeam system of claim 72, wherein the pre-accelerator system isconfigured to defocus and collect backflow that propagates from theaccelerator towards the particle source.
 82. The beam system of claim72, wherein the system is configured to accelerate charged particles ofthe charged particle beam to their maximum cross section before entranceinto the accelerator.
 83. The beam system of claim 72, furthercomprising a vacuum pump chamber configured to remove gas exiting theaccelerator into the pre-accelerator system.
 84. The beam system ofclaim 72, wherein the particle source is positioned such that thecharged particle beam is emitted along a same or substantially similaraxis that traverses the accelerator, along which charged particlespassing through the accelerator are accelerated.
 85. The beam system ofclaim 72, further comprising a control system configured to control thefollowing: a voltage applied to an electrode of the particle source, avoltage applied to an electrostatic lens of the pre-accelerator system,a voltage applied to a pre-accelerator device of the pre-acceleratorsystem, a voltage applied to a magnetic focusing device of thepre-accelerator system, a voltage applied to the accelerator, a voltageoutput by a power supply of the beam system, adjustment of chargedparticle beam position for alignment, and adjustment of charged particlebeam focal position.
 86. The beam system of claim 72, configured for usein Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT).
 87. A method of operating abeam system, the method comprising: emitting a beam comprising chargedparticles from a particle source; accelerating the beam with apre-accelerator system towards an accelerator, wherein thepre-accelerator system comprises an einzel lens, a pre-accelerator tubecomprising a plurality of acceleration terminals, and a solenoid; andaccelerating the beam with the accelerator.
 88. The method of claim 87,wherein accelerating the beam with the pre-accelerator system towardsthe accelerator comprises accelerating the beam such that the chargedparticles reach their maximum cross section prior to entering theaccelerator.
 89. The method of claim 88, wherein the charged particlesreach their maximum cross-section within the pre-accelerator tube. 90.The method of claim 87, further comprising converging the beam with thepre-accelerator system.
 91. The method of claim 87, further comprisingadjusting power supplied to the pre-accelerator system to controlconvergence of the beam.
 92. The method of claim 87, wherein the einzellens is downstream of the particle source, the pre-accelerator tube isdownstream of the einzel lens, and the solenoid is downstream of thepre-accelerator tube.
 93. The method of claim 87, wherein the particlesource is positioned such that the beam is emitted along a same orsubstantially similar axis that traverses the accelerator, along whichcharged particles passing through the accelerator are accelerated. 94.The method of claim 87, wherein the accelerator is a tandem acceleratorcomprising a plurality of input electrodes, a charge exchange device,and a plurality of output electrodes.
 95. The method of claim 94,further comprising defocusing backflow from the tandem accelerator withthe pre-accelerator system.
 96. The method of claim 95, wherein thebackflow comprises ionized background gas.
 97. The method of claim 95,further comprising adjusting power supplied to the pre-acceleratorsystem to control defocusing of the backflow.
 98. The method of claim87, further comprising applying the beam to a lithium target thatgenerates a neutron beam.
 99. The method of claim 87, further comprisingcontrolling, with a control system of the beam system, the following: avoltage applied to an electrode of the particle source, a voltageapplied to the einzel lens, a voltage applied to the pre-acceleratortube, a voltage applied to the solenoid, a voltage applied to theaccelerator, a voltage output by a power supply of the beam system,adjustment of charged particle beam position for alignment, andadjustment of beam focal position.
 100. The method of claim 87, furthercomprising using the beam system in Boron Neutron Capture Therapy(BNCT).
 101. A beam system, comprising: a particle source configured toemit a charged particle beam; a pre-accelerator system configured toaccelerate the charged particle beam from the particle source; and anaccelerator configured to accelerate the charged particle beam from thepre-accelerator system, wherein power to the pre-accelerator system isadjustable to control defocus of backflow from the accelerator.
 102. Thebeam system of claim 101, wherein the pre-accelerator system comprisesan electrostatic lens.
 103. The beam system of claim 102, wherein theelectrostatic lens is an einzel lens comprising: two grounded electrodescoupled to one another in spaced relation; and a biased electrodepositioned between the two grounded electrodes and supported byinsulators extending therebetween, wherein one or more of the biasedelectrode or the two grounded electrodes are configured for negativebiasing.
 104. The beam system of claim 101, wherein the pre-acceleratorsystem comprises a pre-accelerator device, wherein the pre-acceleratordevise is a pre-accelerator tube comprising a plurality of accelerationterminals, and wherein power to the pre-accelerator device is adjustableto control defocus of backflow from the accelerator.
 105. The beamsystem of claim 101, wherein the pre-accelerator system comprises amagnetic focusing device, and wherein power to the magnetic focusingdevice is adjustable to control defocus of backflow from theaccelerator.
 106. The beam system of claim 105, wherein the magneticdefocusing device is a solenoid.
 107. The beam system of claim 101,wherein the pre-accelerator system comprises an electrostatic lens, apre-accelerator device, and a magnetic focusing device.
 108. The beamsystem of claim 107, wherein, with respect to charged particle beamtravel, the electrostatic lens is downstream of the particle source, thepre-accelerator device is downstream of the electrostatic lens, and themagnetic focusing device is downstream of the pre-accelerator device.109. The beam system of claim 101, wherein the accelerator is a tandemaccelerator comprising a plurality of input electrodes, a chargeexchange device, and a plurality of output electrodes.
 110. The beamsystem of claim 109, wherein the pre-accelerator system is configured todefocus and collect backflow that propagates from the acceleratortowards the particle source.
 111. The beam system of 101, furthercomprising a target device configured to form a neutral beam from thecharged particle beam.
 112. The beam system of claim 101, configured foruse in Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT).
 113. A method of operatinga beam system, the method comprising: emitting a beam comprising chargedparticles from a particle source; accelerating the beam with apre-accelerator system towards an accelerator; accelerating the beamwith the accelerator; and defocusing backflow from the accelerator withthe pre-accelerator system by adjusting power supplied to thepre-accelerator system.
 114. The method of claim 113, wherein thepre-accelerator system comprises one or more of an electrostatic lens, apre-accelerator device, or a magnetic focusing device.
 115. The methodof claim 113, wherein the accelerator is a tandem accelerator comprisinga charge exchange device.
 116. The method of claim 113, whereinaccelerating the beam with the pre-accelerator system towards theaccelerator comprises accelerating the beam such that the chargedparticles reach their maximum cross section prior to entering theaccelerator.
 117. The method of claim 116, wherein the charged particlesreach their maximum cross-section within a pre-accelerator tube of thepre-accelerator system.
 118. The method of claim 113, further comprisingadjusting power supplied to the pre-accelerator system to controlconvergence of the beam.
 119. The method of claim 113, wherein thepre-accelerator system comprises an electrostatic lens, apre-accelerator device, and a magnetic focusing device.
 120. The methodof claim 119, further comprising adjusting power supplied to thepre-accelerator device to control defocusing of the backflow.
 121. Themethod of claim 119, further comprising adjusting power supplied to themagnetic focusing device to control defocusing of the backflow.
 122. Themethod of claim 119, wherein, with respect to charged particle beamtravel, the electrostatic lens is downstream of the particle source, thepre-accelerator device is downstream of the electrostatic lens, and themagnetic focusing device is downstream of the pre-accelerator device.123. The method of claim 113, wherein the particle source is positionedsuch that the beam is emitted along a same or substantially similar axisthat traverses the accelerator, along which charged particles passingthrough the accelerator are accelerated.
 124. The method of claim 113,wherein the backflow comprises ionized background gas.
 125. The methodof claim 113, further comprising applying the beam to a target thatgenerates a neutron beam.
 126. The method of claim 113, furthercomprising using the beam system in Boron Neutron Capture Therapy(BNCT).